Essay (Advantages and disadvantages of the cinema)

The influence that the cinema exerts on the minds of those who visit it is at once beneficial and harmful.

Today, there is a cinema in almost every town. The cinema provides so much entertainment that few people fail to visit it. One of the reasons for the popularity of the cinema is that it entertains all types or people, young and old, literate and illiterate. Because it is so popular, it must exercise some influence on those whom it attracts.

The films shown in the cinema are often very instructive and informative. Almost every film shows something about the activities and customs of the people in other lands. By seeing such films, one learns a lot about human activities. One also gains a better understanding of people of the world.

Further, some films show the battles that were fought in the past. They also sometimes show very vividly how man has struggled through the centuries to remove discomfort from his life. In this way, some films have given many people an insight into the past. Even illiterate people have benefited from such films. What they cannot acquire from books owing to their inability to read, they can acquire from films. School students, too, often benefit from a visit to the cinema. What they see and hear in the cinema makes a better impression on their minds than only the spoken words of their teachers. For example, a teacher of history can hardly describe a battle scene to his students as vividly as a film does. For all these reasons, the cinema is often regarded as an important means of spreading knowledge.

It must be admitted, however, that some films have exerted an evil influence on many people. Films which show the activities of criminals have encouraged many youths to commit acts of crime. Other films, too, such as those dealing with sex and other natural weaknesses of man, have corrupted the morals of many people. As a result, the governments of many countries have been compelled to interfere in the display and production of certain films. Yet, the cinema continues to retain its popularity.

Essay (Advantages and disadvantages of money)

Everybody knows the value of money. Nothing is more powerful than money.

In fact, if we have no money, we cannot buy goods, clothes and other necessaries we need. Without money, we cannot go to the movies, theaters or other amusements places.

How can we spend our free time pleasantly on rainy evenings without a color television in front of us? Music from a new hi-fi can relax us quickly after a hard day of work. But how can we satisfy our needs, our desires and our pleasures when we cannot afford to buy them?

Thanks to money we can improve our spiritual activities easily. We can go to any schools, any universities we like to further our knowledge. If our parents are wealthy and powerful we may be sent abroad to study. Moreover, we can enjoy pure happiness by contributing our money to Charity funds to help the poor, the wretched and the victims of other disasters.

But money not only brings us the good but the bad as well. This accounts for much of the wickedness in the world. The rich often depend on it to oppress the poor and millionaires sometimes treat their servants with great cruelty. Many young people, being purse proud of their parent’s wealth and richness, neglect their school activities, always play truant and indulge themselves in alcohol, gambling and debaucheries. They often commit suicide after playing ducks and drakes with all their parents’ fortune. Money, in this way, is the root of all evils.

To sum up, happiness does not depend on the quantity of money but on the way how we use it. We should use our money properly. The right use of money may bring us a comfortable life and a cheerful heart.

(Essay) Advantages and disadvantages of television

Nowadays many people all over the world spent most of their free time watching television; but since its appearance, television has brought to man many advantages as well as disadvantages.

First, television plays an important role in our daily activities: it keeps us informed of all current affairs in the world. Events through television are more vivid than those through books and magazines.

Second, television helps us enrich our spiritual lives. Our knowledge is broadened in many ways. Through language teaching programs, we can learn the language we like such as: English, French, German, Chinese, Japanese and so on. We can become skilful and clever at doing jobs, making cakes or arranging flowers through practical courses taught on television.

Finally, television is a source of recreation. Humorous stories and funny films bring us minutes of relaxation after a hard day’s work. For me, sitting comfortably in an arm-chair to watch an international football match on television is more interesting than having to queue for tickets at a crowded stadium.

Apart from its advantages, however, television also brings lots of disadvantages to viewers too.

First, television viewers gradually become passive in their action. Television may be a splendid media of communication, but it prevents us from communicating with each other or with the outer world. The world seen through television is only the restricted one: It separates us from the real world.

Second, television, with its fascinating power, makes people of all ages sink into oblivion: whole generations are growing up addicted to the telly. Pupils and students are so absorbed in television that they neglect their school activities. Food is left uneaten, homework undone and lessons unprepared. Housewives are so keen on watching television that they neglect their duties toward their husbands and their children. Instead of watching television, we may use the time for a realfamily hour. Without the distraction of television, we may sit around together after dinner and actually talk to one another to know and like each other better.

Finally, the evil influence of television on the young generation is inevitable; it encourages them to commit crimes. Spectacles of sadism and violence on television lead them to robbery, theft, rape and murder.

In a nutshell, television is useful to us when we know how to use it: Be careful not to overindulge ourselves in it and use it in a discerning manner.

essay (Childhood is the best period of one’s life.)

Many a time, I have longed for my childhood days. This is especially true at times when I would like to escape from the torture of examinations and homework. Furthermore, my childhood was filled with countless memorable moments that I would love to relive. Many, who have happy childhood memories, would also, I am sure, feel the same.

Childhood is a period which is associated with fun and play. The child hardly cares or knows what the adult thinks of him. He frolics with his childhood playmates in the sand, mud or water. Through his mother may chide him for his pranks, she may, secretly in her heart, wish that she too could be as carefree and happy as her child.

Children normally do not have any major responsibilities to shoulder. Political, economic, social and family problems do not disturb them. They may be confused because they can not comprehend the problem, but most of them will not go through heartbreaking moments over them.

However, the above beautifully painted childhood phase is not true in the case of all children. There are children who are abused and exploited and who suffer from dire poverty. In Ethiopia and other poor countries, children are afflicted with many diseases and continually suffer the pangs of hunger. They have to shoulder the responsibilities of adults, looking for food and taking care of their younger siblings.

These cases, however, may be considered as exceptions. Many still feel that the average child’s life is much merrier. Adult life is filled with responsibilities. Yet, responsibilities need not be viewed negatively. There are many joys that come with responsibilities. For example, I always experience great joy and satisfaction when I do well in my exam after studying hard for it.

Therefore, in my view, childhood can be looked back upon as one of the best periods in one’s life. With a positive attitude, a person can experience happiness in any period of his life.

(essay) Necessity is the mother of invention

This proverb just means that there is nothing like a pressing and urgent need for setting people to work to find a way of meeting it. If we could get all we want from nature we should not bother to invent anything; as we can’t, we are forced to find out ways and means to satisfy our needs.

In the early days of mankind, the necessity of communicating with one another led men to the invention of languages. Later, the necessity of keeping some record of what they did or said led to the invention of writing. Later still, the necessity of spreading news and knowledge led to the invention of printing.

These are only few illustrations to prove that from the very beginning of the human life that man has been making inventions and discoveries out of sheer necessity. Hence we recognize “necessity” for the progress of the human race.

essay (A visit to a famous city)

A few months ago my father and I visited Singapore, one of the most famous cities in Asia.

Singapore, a small island, lies at the southern and of West Malaysia. A long and narrow piece of land joins Singapore with Johore Hahru, the southern-most town of West Malaysia. Singapore is now an independent state.

The city of Singapore is extremely beautiful. It is well known for its centers of business and other activities. There are many places of interest such as the Tiger Balm Garden, the Botanical Gardens and Raffles Museum. There are also many important centers of learning such as the University of Singapore, Science Centre, the Nanyang University and the Polytechnic. Being a famous city, hundreds of people come everyday from various parts of the world to do business or to enjoy the sights of the city. Singapore therefore has large and beautiful airports and its harbors are full of ships.

There are many night schools where people who cannot go to the day schools for some reason or other can continue their studies. And, the government of Singapore is still doing its best to make further improvements in the city for the benefit of the people.

During my stay in Singapore, I went out everyday with my father to see the beautiful and interesting places and things in the city. One day we went to the Tiger Balm Garden where I saw several statues of people, animals and other strange creature beautifully made and kept. The sea near this garden makes it a pleasant place to visit. We spent almost half of the day at this place.

Another day we visited the museum where I saw hundreds of curious things preserved for scholars and others. It was indeed an education to see all those things. There is so much to learn here that every visit by any person is sure to add to his knowledge.

I also visited some of the harbors and saw the large ships anchored there. The sight of the ships aroused a desire in me to cross the oceans and go round the world. I was indeed deeply impressed by activities at the harbor.

Then every night, I went round the town and visited some of the parks and other places of interest. The numerous lights and the constant stream of traffic kept the city alive. I visited a few of the cinemas as well. In short, I enjoyed every moment of my stay in this famous city of Singapore.

essay (The pleasures of living in a village)

A village is a quiet place where the influence of the city is not felt much. It is indeed a very good place for rest and relaxation.

In a village people do not live very close to one another. Their houses are far apart. Each house therefore has a lot of space around it. So, almost every house is surrounded by flower and fruit plants and vegetables. All these make the village look green and fresh. There are also tall trees everywhere which provide shade from the sun and keep the village cool.

Some villages are surrounded by paddy-fields or mountains. There are also many streams and riversin most villages. All these add great beauty and variety to the village scene.

The people of village are very simple in thought and behavior. They are therefore very friendly and helpful. So, the crimes of a city are almost unknown in a village. The people here work together and live in peace. Whenever they celebrate a festival, they dance and sing together and the whole village is in a gay mood.

Living among such friendly and simple people, in such a quiet place, is indeed a real pleasure.

essay Imagine that you live in a village. Describe your village.

The village I live in is known as Kampung Java. It is about ten miles from a large town.

There are many people in my village. Most of them are farmers. They grow paddy in the large fields around my village. These paddy fields look very beautiful when the paddy plants are growing. The mountains in the distance and the palm trees all around, add to the beauty of these fields.

The shops in my village are very old. There are few brick buildings. Most of the shops are along the main road in the village. As the people in my village live a simple life, their needs are not many. So, many of the things found in the shops in the towns are not found in the shops in my village.

The people in my village are good. They go not like to quarrel or fight with others. Every evening they meet one another and talk about many things. If they need any help or advice, they go to the village chief. The chief is a wise man. He gives good advice and keeps the people happy.

Indeed, I like my village very much.

(essay) Life in the village

The village has always been known to be a place of peace and quiet. The scattered houses among hundreds of plants and trees indicate the lack of activities in the village.

The workers in the village leave their homes early in the morning to work in the plantations or towns near by. Some have their own plantations, and some make certain articles in their homes to sell them in the towns. A few of the villagers, including women, go out to catch fish in the streams and rivers found in the village. Though the people of the village do not usually earn much, they seem to be contented.

In the afternoon, most of the villagers are at home. Some of them take a nap after lunch, do some work in their small gardens or pay some visit to the small shops in the village. In various parts of the village, children may be found playing the popular games of the village. Occasionally, a cyclist passes by.

In the evening, the villagers meet one another. Some play cards and other types of games which are peculiar to the village. Some talk about the day’s incidents in the village, and those whose minds go beyond the village discuss world events.

In almost every village there is a headman whose duty is to settle quarrels among the villagers and maintain peace in the village. Whenever there is a dispute, the villagers go to the headman who is held in such esteem that his words have the force of law. In this way the villagers have developed their own simple laws, and the crimes of cities are almost unknown to the people of the village.

During a festival, the whole village is alive with activities. Everyone is in a happy mood and plays his part to make the festival a success. This is the time for the men, women and children of the village to wear their best clothes and the village is full of color.

These simple ways of life in the village, however, must soon change. Progress in science and education has already begun to affect the outlook of the people in the village. Hundreds are leaving the village to seek their fortunes in the towns and cities.

Good manners

Good manners play an important part in maintaining peace and good-wiling in a community. A man who has good manners does not hurt the feelings of others, and therefore he is on good terms with his friends and neighbors and also with others. In this way he helps to keep peace in society.

But a man whose manners are bad has no respect for others. He uses words carelessly and behaves rudely towards other and causes a lot of ill-will and unpleasantness. In the end, it is he himself who suffers the most. Everyone avoids him and he is forced to live almost in isolation.

To live well in a society, money alone is not enough. We should also have good manners, for it is human nature to seek friendship; and friendship cannot be bought with money. Friendship with others makes life pleasant and it has to be earned through our own attitude towards others. If we are kind to others, they will be kind to us, and kindness is the essence of good manners. Bad manners not only drive away friends but also others, including our own family members.

Even the richest man cannot afford to have had manners. For a man may have enough money to buy all things than he wants; but if his manners are bad he will have no friends, and no one can live happily without friends. Even the members of his own family may not respect him and finally he will become a lonely man.

On the other hand, a man whose manners are good has many friends. He commands the respect of all those who come into contact with him. He does not talk ill about others. Even when he is provoked, he tries his best to use words in a way which will not offend others. He is also sympathetic towards the weak and ignorant and does not poke fun at the deformities and weaknesses of others.

There are, however, many people who behave so well outside their homes that they are respected and admired by everyone outside. But in their own homes they are worse than the devil. Such people could not be said to have good manners. Their whole behavior is a pretence and it does not take long for others to discover this.

If one’s manners are good, one behaves well everywhere, even when one is away from the critical eyes of others. Only such a person can live well in society. It is therefore essential for everyone to cultivate good manners.

An incident when you were faced with a difficult problem.

“What is the meaning of this?” Grandma questioned in a frightened whisper as she thrust the newspaper at me. I took it from her tremulous hands. A picture of me stared back and my parents’ plea for my return was stated in bold print. Now, I had to tell my grandmother the truth.

For weeks, my parents had been bickering. I never understood what started the quarrels and neither of my parents explained the problem to me. When the bickering finally stopped, it was only to be replaced by a cold war between them. They were no longer on speaking terms and they made me relay messages from one to the other.

I was very confused. My performance at school was affected and my teachers thought that I was becoming lazy. This compounded my problems. Finally, I decided to run away from home.

One morning, instead of going to school, I went to Johore Bahru where my grandmother lived. I told her that it was my term break and I had decided to spend the holidays with her. I fabricated a tale about my parents going on a business trip to Australia, as the reason for their not being able to accompany me. However, since my disappearance from home had come to light, I confessed everything to my grandmother. She put her arms round me and comforted me. That afternoon, she took me back home.

My parents were relieved and happy to see me. Before they could question me, my grandmother took them aside and they talked for several hours.

That night, as I prepared to go to bed, my mother quietly came and satisfaction by my side. She apologized to me for not having been sensitive to my needs. She told me that there were irreconcilable differences between her and my father and that they had filed for a divorce. She also said that I was to live with her. She hoped that I would try to be strong as we went through our crisis together. Her soft and soothing voice made the news easier to bear. I now know that running away from a problem will never solve anything.

Keeping pets is wrong.

“A dog is a man’s best friend.” People all over the world keep dogs and other kinds of animals as pets. The more popular pets in Singapore are dogs, cats, birds and fishes. In some countries, people even choose to keep snakes elephants and lions as pets.

From the point of view of most people, keeping pets is not an evil deed at all. In fact, keeping pets nurtures desirable qualities in the owner such as responsibility, care and love. Young children are taught how to take proper care of their pets. They save their pocket money to buy bird seed, worms or other necessities for their pets. Further more, keeping pets can be educational. It stimulates great interest in the particular pet. Pet owners also read and discuss much about the pets they own.

In my view, however, it is wrong to keep pets. Man assumes that animals do not have much intelligence and hence have no rights. He just assumes that animals like being kept as pets. This is especially true in the case of caged birds. By nature, birds are meant to fly. It is most pitiful to see a creature that can fly around the entire globe being imprisoned in a cage.

Keeping pets is even more wrong when people fail to take proper care of their pets. Many pet owners do not ensure that the cages, fish tanks or dog kennels are clean at all times. Sometimes, they even forget to feed their pets. I strongly feel that the very act of caging animals and depriving them of freedom is a form of evil.

Childhood is the best period of one’s life.

Examinations should be banned.

School examinations are something which most students dread. Yet, there is hardly any educational system that does not set examinations.

Many feel that examinations should be banned because they test the students’ memory power rather than their analytical or reasoning powers. Such examinations require students only to memorize facts regurgitate them during examinations and conveniently forget them soon after.

Passing examinations could also sometimes be a matter of luck. Lucky student who spots questions accurately will probably do better than one who just studies his books. Moreover, there are some students who perform better when they are not under pressure. These students may panic and perform poorly under examination conditions.

Though reasons for banning examinations may be many, there remains one basic explanation as to why examinations have not been abolished. That is, all educational systems need a standardized method of testing the students’ understanding of what they have learned. No one has thought of a better substitute in that respect. Whether examinations test a student’s memory power or analytical power depends very much on the type of questions asked. Therefore, there is no need to abolish examinations. Rather, examinations could be set such that they truly test the student’s understanding. Some even argue that the students’ ability to withstand pressure during examinations do reflect a certain form of capability.

Furthermore, students need examinations to act as a form of motivation to learn. If examinations were banned, many would become complacent and would not do their best.

In conclusion, it can be said that examinations should not be banned because of the need to assess a student’s ability.

Good manners

Qualities of a good teacher

Teachers play an important part in training children, teenagers and even people in their early maturity. Some qualities of a good teacher that are crucial for determining one as a good teacher are the teacher’s sound knowledge in his/her major and its related fields, certain devotion to and great love for his/her students and his/her ability to inspire the students’ passion for studying either in or out of class.

There is no doubt that knowledge is a quality/must for a good teacher. In addition to his/her professional knowledge, the teacher need to enlarge his/her general knowledge on culture, society, humanity, psychology, methodology, politics, history, etc. to provide his/her students with what they need to know, satisfy their curiosity and meet their requirements in any case.

Another quality that a good teacher should have is his/her devotion to and great love for those who call him ‘sir’ or her ‘madam’ in class. Generally speaking, the students are not mature enough to behave properly. They are sometimes really stubborn. Consequently, the teacher has to learn how to handle the students’ troubles in a gentle and affectionate manner. He/she should pay adequate attention to the students and know how to keep calm in any situation so that he/she can give the students some advice when they are in need or help them distinguish the right from the wrong.

Last but not least, a good teacher always succeeds in inspiring his/her students’ passion for studying both under his/her guidance in class and out of class by themselves. I highly appreciate this third quality of a good teacher because of its undeniable value. It is not always easy to provide his/her students with all the required knowledge in class; therefore, a good teacher can manage to make the students motivated enough to carry on their active and successful self-study at home. Obviously, teaching his/her students how to study independently, creatively and effectively is what a good teacher must do in any academic setting.

In conclusion, to be a good teacher, anyone who devotes himself/herself to the “coinage” of a succession of young generations must keep on working really hard to enlarge his/her skill and general as well as professional knowledge, to accumulate experience in how to deal with his/her students properly and to be able to inspire in the students the true love, the increasing hope and the ever-lasting enthusiasm to reach higher and higher levels of education in their life. Those are important qualities of a good teacher.

Money is the causes of all evils

Money is the instrument of exchange, helping in buying and selling and also in fixing a value on things and commodities. It may be in metal or in paper. With the market getting more and more complicated, there are other negotiable instruments which are as good as the minted coins or the printed notes. Money gives purchasing power but this power is not absolute as it is on various factors. In such a case it is termed currency and according to their purchasing power they are termed hard, soft and weak. Though coins and notes are issued by the Government of the country, there is a limit to their minting.

Let us see why money is needed. It is simply because it helps the processor to buy things. The days of battering are gone though it is indirectly resorted to at international level. Money is helpful as a standard of price. Money helps the owner to have power not only in buying things but also in influencing many human activities. Money is used for good things such as using it to build a temple, a church or a museum. Great educational institutions can be built. Students can be helped by providing them with scholarships in furthering their studies. The Nobel Prize would not have been there but for the huge sum of money earned by Alfred Nobel.

Money can buy men as it does things. Thus money plays an important role in fighting and winning elections. Money mars men’s and women’s morals. It is the evil influence in corrupting people. “Sell out” is the new term used for bribery.

There are people who could do anything for the sake of money. Moneyed people can buy many things which the poor cannot do.

With the power of money, individuals as well as states can dictate terms. The Middle East countries have found new wealth because of their oil deposits and they have become a very powerful group.

This kind of power should not go to one’s head. One should remember that the money coming into him was by chance. He must not use it for evil purposes. But wherever there is evil there is usually money involved. Other motivating forces for evil action are jealousy, vengeance, hatred and so on.

Money is normally the fruit of labour. The question is how one spends that money. Great thinkers have suggested that one who has money enough and enough to spare must look upon himself as the trustee of the money and see to it that it is spent in a wise and useful way. There is nothing good or evil about money. It depends on how one puts it to. The same money which could help bring relief to the suffering million, can be used to build up armaments. The hope of getting money spurs one into action. The power decides how to spend the money. Money can be used morally or immorally. A morally strong man may not use money in evil ways and vice versa.

A journey by train

A journey by train

The house in which I lived before was near the railway station. Trains used to pass by at regular interval and I had become so familiar with their sound and sight that I took little interest in them. It never occurred to me that I might make a journey by train some day. However, when my father decided to take up a new appointment in the place where we now live, it was decided that we should travel by train. It was only then that I discovered how pleasant a journey by train might be.

My father, mother and I boarded a train one afternoon. As the train moved out of the station, I began to think of the days I had spent in our old house which I could still see from the train. But soon the house went out of sight, and I began to think of my journey itself.

The train was now moving quite fast. The first thing that impressed me was the beauty of the landscape. There were green valleys. Tropical plants could be seen everywhere. In certain places there was tall grass. All this reminded me of the geography lessons I had in the class room. Several palm-oil and rubber plantations could be seen now and then. Sometimes I saw a few houses here and there. I also saw many vegetable gardens at several places.

The train stopped at many stations, and soon it became dark. But sometime later the moon appeared and the landscape looked romantic. As I looked outside, I felt a thrill of admiration for the great artistry of nature.

Inside the train, too, everything was interesting. Some restless passengers moved about aimlessly and their restlessness was amusing. Some were sleeping with their mouths wide open, into which some mosquitoes blundered. Others were reading magazines and newspapers. Occasionally, the ticket-checker passed by. At one corner I saw two policemen keeping a close watch on a man who was hand-cuffed.

At every station a few passengers alighted from the train while a few boarded it. Whenever the train stopped at a big station, I saw a large number of people on the platforms, smartly dressed, and often smiling. As the train moved out, many waved their hands and the passengers too waved in response.

After we had passed several stations, I felt sleepy and closed my eyes. When I opened them, I saw the dim light of the dawn. I looked outside and saw the mist-covered plants. The air was fresh, and some birds were flying about. The scene looked extremely beautiful and I was lost in admiration of it. But we soon arrived at our destination and my enjoyment came to an end.

Direct and Indirect Speech

When using indirect or reported speech, the form changes. Usually indirect speech is introduced by the verb said, as in I said, Bill said, or they said. Using the verb say in this tense, indicates that something was said in the past. In these cases, the main verb in the reported sentence is put in the past. If the main verb is already in a past tense, then the tense changes to another past tense; it can almost be seen as moving even further into the past.

Verb tense changes also characterize other situations using indirect speech. Note the changes shown in the chart and see the table below for examples. With indirect speech, the use of that is optional.

Direct Speech	Þ	Indirect Speech
simple present He said, “I go to school every day.”	Þ	simple past He said (that) he *went* to school every day.
simple past He said, “I *went* to school every day.”	Þ	past perfect He said (that) he *had gone* to school every day.
present perfect He said, “I *have gone* to school every day.”	Þ	past perfect He said (that) he *had gone* to school every day.
present progressive He said, “I *am going* to school every day.”	Þ	past progressive He said (that) he *was going* to school every day.
past progressive He said, “I *was going* to school every day.”	Þ	perfect progressive He said (that) he *had been going* to school every day,
future (will) He said, “I *will go* to school every day.”	Þ	would + verb name He said (that) he *would go* to school every day.
future (going to) He said, “I *am going* to school every day.”	Þ	present progressive He said (that) he *is going* to school every day.
		past progressive He said (that) he *was going* to school every day
Direct Speech	Þ	Indirect Speech
auxiliary + verb name He said, “*Do you go* to school every day?” He said, “Where do you go to school?”	Þ	simple past He asked me *if I went* to school every day.* He asked me where I went to school.
imperative He said, “Go to school every day.”	Þ	infinitive He said *to go* to school every day.

*Note than when a Yes/No question is being asked in direct speech, then a construction with if or whetheris used. If a WH question is being asked, then use the WH to introduce the clause. Also note that with indirect speech, these are examples of embedded questions.
The situation changes if instead of the common said another part of the very to say is used. In that case the verb tenses usually remain the same. Some examples of this situation are given below.

Direct Speech	Þ	Indirect Speech
simple present + simple present He *says*, “I go to school every day.”	Þ	simple present + simple present He *says* (that) he *goes* to school every day.
present perfect + simple present He *has said*, “I go to school every day.”	Þ	present perfect + simple present He *has said* (that) he *goes* to school every day.
past progressive + simple past He *was saying*, “I *wen*t to school every day.”	Þ	past progressive + simple past He *was saying* (that) he *went* to school every day.
		past progressive + past perfect He *was saying* (that) he *had gone* to school every day.
future + simple present He *will say*, “I go to school every day.”	Þ	future + simple present He *will say* (that) he *goes* to school every day.

Another situation is the one in which modal constructions are used. If the verb said is used, then the form of the modal, or another modal that has a past meaning is used.
Direct Speech	Þ	Indirect Speech
can He said, “I *can* go to school every day.”	Þ	could He said (that) he *could* go to school every day.
may He said, “I *may go* to school every day.”	Þ	might He said (that) he *might go* to school every day.
might He said, “I *might go* to school every day.”
must He said, “I *must go* to school every day.”	Þ	had to He said (that) he *had to go* to school every day.
have to He said, “I *have to go* to school every day.”
should He said, “I *should go* to school every day.”	Þ	should He said (that) he *should* go to school every day.
ought to He said, “I *ought to* go to school every day.”	Þ	ought to He said (that) he *ought to* go to school every day.

ENGLISH GRAMMAR (PARTS OF SPEECH, NOUN & PRONOUN)

OMTEX CLASSES ENGLISH GRAMMAR

Lesson One

The Parts of Speech

Traditional grammar classifies words based on eight parts of speech: the verb, the noun, the pronoun, the adjective, the adverb, the preposition, the conjunction, and the interjection.

Each part of speech explains not what the word is, but how the word is used. In fact, the same word can be a noun in one sentence and a verb or adjective in the next. The next few examples show how a word's part of speech can change from one sentence to the next.

Books are made of ink, paper, and glue.

In this sentence, "books" is a noun, the subject of the sentence.

Deborah waits patiently while Bridget books the tickets.

Here "books" is a verb, and its subject is "Bridget."

We walk down the street.

In this sentence, "walk" is a verb, and its subject is the pronoun "we".

The mail carrier stood on the walk.

In this example, "walk" is a noun, which is part of a prepositional phrase describing where the mail carrier stood.

The town decided to build a new jail.

Here "jail" is a noun, which is the object of the infinitive phrase "to build."

The sheriff told us that if we did not leave town immediately he would jail us.

Here "jail" is part of the compound verb "would jail."

They heard high pitched cries in the middle of the night.

In this sentence, "cries" is a noun acting as the direct object of the verb "heard."

The baby cries all night long and all day long.

But here "cries" is a verb that describes the actions of the subject of the sentence, the baby.

Word categories

NOUN
PRONOUN
VERB
ADJECTIVE
ADVERB
PREPOSITION
CONJUNCTION
INTERJECTION

1.1. An overview of nouns
A noun: any word which names a person, place, thing, idea, animal, quality, or action.

Count Nouns: anything which can be counted; singular and plural
Example: car - cars
Mass Nouns: entities which cannot be counted; they have no plural form.
Example: money
Collective Nouns: groups of people or things; sing. and plural.
Example: herd - herds
Possessive Nouns: express ownership by adding an apostrophe.
Examples: (singular.) Kelly's anger (plural.) birds' feathers

1.2. An overview of pronouns
A pronoun: a word which takes the place of a noun (called "the antecedent")

Personal: they refer to person/people speaking, spoken to or spoken about.
Examples: I, me, you, he, him, she, her, it, we, us, they .
Possessive: they function independently; they show possession.
Examples: my, mine, your, yours, our, ours, his, her, hers .
Indefinite: they have no specific antecedents.
Examples: another, both, everything, nothing
Reflexive: they show that the subject performs actions to/for itself
Examples: myself, yourself, itself, ourselves, themselves
Intensive: they refer back to a noun/pronoun to add emphasis to it
Examples: (same forms as reflexive pronouns)
Reciprocal: they show a mutual action or relationship
Examples: each other, one another
Interrogative: they are used to ask a question
Examples: who, which, what
Relative: they are used to introduce a relative clause
Examples: who, which, that
Demonstrative: they substitute for specific nouns
Examples: this, that, these, those

1.3. An overview of verbs
A verb: expresses action or state of being

Transitive: it is an action verb; it passes action on to a direct object
Example: We bought a car.
Intransitive: it does not indicate a transfer of action; it does not require a direct object
Example: The eagle soared.
Linking: it joins the subject with a word that renames/describes it
Example: The sky is blue.
Main: it indicates the primary activity
Auxiliary: "helps" the main verb
Modal: indicates ability, obligation, permission, possibility
Examples: can, may, must, should, could, might, ought, would
Finite: it describes a definite and limited action or condition
Non-finite/Verbal: shows an unfinished action or condition

Infinitives: to + verb; act as nouns, adjectives, adverbs
Participles: past or present; always act as adjectives
Gerunds: present participle form; act as nouns

1.4. An overview of adjectives
An adjective: modifies nouns and pronouns

Descriptive: it names a quality of the noun

Attributive: Eg. The brown cow.
Predicate: Eg. It was a brown cow.

Limiting: it limits a noun

Definite/Indefinite Articles: Eg. the, a, an
Possessive: Eg. his, her, its, their
Demonstrative: Eg. this, that, these, those
Indefinite: Eg. several, few, less, many, more
Interrogative: Eg. what, which, whose
Cardinal: Eg. one, two, four
Ordinal: Eg. third, fourth, fiftieth
Nouns: Eg. the milk cow
Proper: Eg. the German cow

1.5. An overview of adverbs
An adverb: modifies verbs, adjectives, adverbs, sentences

Examples: sang loudly, ran swiftly

1.6. An overview of prepositions
A preposition: links a noun or a pronoun (the object of the preposition) with some other word or expression.

Examples: about, below, in, over, until

1.7. An overview of conjunctions

A conjunction : links sentence elements, ie. words, phrases, clauses

Coordinating : it joins sentence parts of equal grammatical status
Examples: and, but, for, nor, or, so, yet
Correlative: they are coordinating conjunctions that work in pairs; they join words, phrases, clauses, sentences.
Examples: both...and, either...or, neither...nor
Subordinating: they connect clauses of unequal status

Examples: after, because, that, though

1.8. An overview of interjections
An interjection is an unusual kind of word, because it often stands alone. Interjections are words which express emotion or surprise, and they are usually followed by exclamation marks.

Examples: Ouch!, Hello!, Hurray!, Oh no!, Ha! yuk, ouch, eh .

Exercise:

Identify the part of speech of the underlined word in each of the following sentences:

The clown chased a dog around the ring and then fell flat on her face.
The geese indolently waddled across the intersection.
Yikes! I'm late for class.
Bruno's shabby thesaurus tumbled out of the book bag when the bus suddenly pulled out into traffic.
Mr. Frederick angrily stamped out the fire that the local hooligans had started on his verandah.
Later that summer, she asked herself, "What was I thinking of?"
She thought that the twenty zucchini plants would not be enough so she planted another ten.
Although she gave hundreds of zucchini away, the enormous mound left over frightened her.
Everywhere she went, she talked about the prolific veggies.
The manager confidently made his presentation to the board of directors.
Frankenstein is the name of the scientist, not the monster.

Her greatest fear is that the world will end before she finds a comfortable pair of panty-hose.
That suitcase is hers.
Everyone in the room cheered when the announcement was made.
The sun was shining as we set out for our first winter camping trip.
Small children often insist that they can do it by themselves.
Dust covered every surface in the locked bedroom.
The census taker knocked loudly on all the doors but nobody was home.
They wondered if there truly was honour among thieves.

20. Exciting new products and effective marketing strategies will guarantee the company's success.

2. Word functions

Words can perform the following functions:

2.1. Subject and Predicate

Every complete sentence contains two parts: a subject and a predicate. The subject is what (or whom) the sentence is about, while the predicate tells something about the subject. In the following sentences, the predicate is enclosed in braces ({ }), while the subject is highlighted.

Judy {runs}.

Judy and her dog {run on the beach every morning}.

To determine the subject of a sentence, first isolate the verb and then make a question by placing "who?" or "what?" before it -- the answer is the subject.

The audience littered the theatre floor with torn wrappings and spilled popcorn.

The verb in the above sentence is "littered." Who or what littered? The audience did. "The audience" is the subject of the sentence. The predicate (which always includes the verb) goes on to relate something about the subject: what about the audience? It "littered the theatre floor with torn wrappings and spilled popcorn."

Unusual Sentences

Imperative sentences (sentences that give a command or an order) differ from conventional sentences in that their subject, which is always "you," is understood rather than expressed.

Stand on your head. ("You" is understood before "stand.")

Be careful with sentences that begin with "there" plus a form of the verb "to be." In such sentences, "there" is not the subject; it merely signals that the true subject will soon follow.

There were three stray kittens cowering under our porch steps this morning.

If you ask who? or what? before the verb ("were cowering"), the answer is "three stray kittens," the correct subject.

2.2. Objects

A verb may be followed by an object that completes the verb's meaning. Two kinds of objects follow verbs: direct objects and indirect objects. To determine if a verb has a direct object, isolate the verb and make it into a question by placing "whom?" or "what?" after it. The answer, if there is one, is the direct object:

Direct Object

The advertising executive drove a flashy red Porsche.

Direct Object

Her secret admirer gave her a bouquet of flowers.

The second sentence above also contains an indirect object. An indirect object (which, like a direct object, is always a noun or pronoun) is, in a sense, the recipient of the direct object. To determine if a verb has an indirect object, isolate the verb and ask to whom?, to what?, for whom?, or for what? after it. The answer is the indirect object.

Not all verbs are followed by objects. Consider the verbs in the following sentences:

The guest speaker rose from her chair to protest.

After work, Randy usually jogs around the canal.

Transitive and Intransitive Verbs

Verbs that take objects are known as transitive verbs. Verbs not followed by objects are called intransitive verbs.

Some verbs can be either transitive verbs or intransitive verbs, depending on the context:

Direct Object

I hope the Senators win the next game.

No Direct Object

Did we win?

2.3. Complements

Subject Complements

In addition to the transitive verb and the intransitive verb, there is a third kind of verb called a linking verb. The word (or phrase) which follows a linking verb is called not an object, but a subject complement.

The most common linking verb is "be." Other linking verbs are "become," "seem," "appear," "feel," "grow," "look," "smell," "taste," and "sound," among others. Note that some of these are sometimes linking verbs, sometimes transitive verbs, or sometimes intransitive verbs, depending on how you use them:

Linking verb with subject complement

He was a radiologist before he became a full-time yoga instructor.

Linking verb with subject complement

Your homemade chili smells delicious.

Transitive verb with direct object

I can't smell anything with this terrible cold.

Intransitive verb with no object

The interior of the beautiful new Buick smells strongly of fish.

Note that a subject complement can be either a noun ("radiologist", "instructor") or an adjective ("delicious").

Object Complements

An object complement is similar to a subject complement, except that (obviously) it modifies an object rather than a subject. Consider this example of a subject complement:

The driver seems tired.

In this case, as explained above, the adjective "tired" modifies the noun "driver," which is the subject of the sentence.

Sometimes, however, the noun will be the object, as in the following example:

I consider the driver tired.

In this case, the noun "driver" is the direct object of the verb "consider," but the adjective "tired" is still acting as its complement.

In general, verbs which have to do with perceiving, judging, or changing something can cause their direct objects to take an object complement:

Paint it black.

The judge ruled her out of order.

I saw the Prime Minister sleeping.

In every case, you could reconstruct the last part of the sentence into a sentence of its own using a subject complement: "it is black," "she is out of order," "the Prime Minister is sleeping."

2.4. Apposition

When two words, clauses, or phrases stand close together and share the same part of the sentence, they are in apposition and are called appositives.

In fact, an appositive is very much like a subject complement, only without the linking verb:

subject complement

My brother is a research associate.

appositive

My brother the research associate works at a large polling firm.

subject complement

Jean became a magistrate.

appositive

I have never met Jean the magistrate.

2.5. An Adjective

An adjective modifies a noun or a pronoun by describing, identifying, or quantifying words. An adjective usually precedes the noun or the pronoun which it modifies.

2.6. An Adverb

An adverb can modify a verb, an adjective, another adverb, a phrase, or a clause. An adverb indicates manner, time, place, cause, or degree and answers questions such as "how," "when," "where," "how much".

While some adverbs can be identified by their characteristic "ly" suffix, most of them must be identified by untangling the grammatical relationships within the sentence or clause as a whole. Unlike an adjective, an adverb can be found in various places within the sentence.

Exercise 1: Divide each of the following sentences into its constituent parts of speech and label each part:

1- Mary meticulously cleaned her room.

2- The girl is now a student at a large university.

3- His brother grew happier gradually.

4- It rained steadily all day.

5- He had given the girl an apple.

6- He gave me his phone number but I lost it.

7- They chose a dark brown paint.

8- They made him chairman every year.

9- The dancer moved gracefully.

10-The day was completely enjoyable.

6- A hot infusion of mint will stop your stomach-ache.

8- He gave me a handful of peanuts, a glass of tea and two cakes.

10- The mother looked at her children with pride.

Exercise 2: Look carefully at the word ‘round’ and classify it in a accordance with its use in the following sentences.

1- We meet him in any round table we do.

2- We went round by the bridge.

3- I was thinking, sitting round the fire.

4- He was speaking in rich round tones.

5- The sound went round and round.

Exercise 3: Lengthen the following sentences by adding different words

1- The elephant eats grass.

2- He lost his watch.

3- They write a letter.

4- They offered me a present.

5- We are human beings.

Lesson Two

Nouns

A noun tells us what someone or something is called. It can be the name of a person (John), a job title (physician), the name of a thing (ring), of a place (London), of a quality (patience), of an action (laughter/laughing). They are names we give to people, things, places, etc. to identify them. Many nouns are used after a determiner, e.g. a, the, this and often combine with other words to form a noun phrase: e.g. the man, the man next door, that tall building. Nouns and noun phrases answer the question who? and what? and may be:

-The subject of a verb

Our agent in Cairo sent a telex this morning.

- The direct object of a verb:

Frank sent an urgent telex from Cairo this morning.

- The indirect object of a verb:

Frank sent his boss a telex.

- The object of a preposition:

I read about it in the paper.

- The complement of be or a related verb like seem:

Jane is our guest.

- used 'in apposition':

Laura Myers, a BBC reporter, asked for an interview.

- used when we speak directly to somebody:

Caroline, shut that window, will you please?

Nouns can be classified into proper nouns and common nouns:

I – Proper nouns:

A proper noun is used for a particular place, thing or idea which is unique. It is generally spelt with a capital letter. Articles are not usually used in front of proper nouns. Proper nouns include, for example:

- Personal names (with or without titles): Andrew, Andrew Smith, Mr. Andrew Smith, President Kennedy.

- Forms of address: Mum, Dad, Auntie, Uncle Fred.

- Geographical names: Asia, India, Wisconsin.

- Place names: Madison Avenue, Regent Street.

- Months, days of the week, festivals and seasons: April, Monday, Easter, Christmas. (Seasons are usually spelt with a small letter but sometimes with a capital: spring or Spring.

II. Common nouns: Any noun which is not the name of a particular person, place, thing or idea is a common noun. We can use a/an, the or the zero article in front of common nouns.

Countable and uncountable nouns

The distinction between countable and uncountable nouns is fundamental in English because only by distinguishing between the two can we understand when to use singular or plural forms and when to use the definite, indefinite and zero articles: a/an, the and, or the appropriate quantifier: a few, much, many, etc.

1- Countable nouns: they are sometimes known as unit or count nouns. If a noun is countable:

- we can use a/an in front of it: a book, an envelope.

- it has a plural and can be used in the question How many?:

How many stamps/envelopes? – Four stamps/envelopes.

- we can use numbers: one stamp, two stamps.

2- Uncountable nouns: they are sometimes known as mass or non-count nouns. If a noun is uncountable:

we do not normally use a/an in front of it: sugar is expensive.
it does not normally have a plural and it can be used in the question How much? How much meat /oil? - A lot of meat/ A little oil.
we cannot normally use a number (one, two) in front of it.

Sometimes a noun is used uncountably when we are talking about the whole substance or idea, but countably when we are talking about:

Recognized containers for things. Compare:

I prefer tea to coffee. and Three teas (=cups of tea), please.

A type, brand of things. Compare:

There is cheese in the fridge. and There were dozens of cheeses (= kinds of cheese) to choose from.

A particular example of a physical or concrete thing. Compare:

She has blond hair. and There is a hair In my soup.

Concrete and abstract nouns

Many countable nouns are concrete (having an individual physical existence), for example:

Persons, animals, plants: a girl, a horse, a tree

Objects: a bottle, a desk, a typewriter.

Groups: an army, a crowd, a herd.

Units of measurement: a franc, a kilo, a metre.

Parts of a mass: a bit, a packet, a piece, a slice

Concrete uncountable nouns (sometimes having physical but not 'individual' existence) include words like:

Material, liquid, gases: cotton, milk, air.

Grains and powder: barley, rice, dust, flour.

Activities: camping, drinking, eating, sailing.

Languages: Arabic, Italian, Japanese, Turkish.

A few countable nouns are abstract: e.g. a hope, an idea, a nuisance, a remark, a situation. An abstract noun refers to an idea/ a concept which exists only in our minds. A number of abstract nouns can be used only as countables: e.g. a denial, a proposal, a scheme, a statement. Many uncountable nouns are abstract: e.g. anger, equality, honesty.

Compound nouns

Many nouns in English are formed from two parts (classroom) or, less commonly, three or more (son-in-law, stick-in-the-mud). Sometimes, compounds are spelled with a hyphen, sometimes not. They are usually pronounced with the stress on the first syllable, but there are exceptions.

Single-word compound nouns:

There are many words which we no longer think of as compounds at all, even though they are clearly made up of two words:

a 'cupboard, a 'raincoat, a 'saucepan, the 'seaside, a 'typewriter

Nouns formed with adjective + noun:

a 'greenhouse, a 'heavyweight, 'longhand, a 'redhead

Nouns formed with gerund + noun:

'drinking water, a 'frying pan, a 'walking stick

Here, the meaning is 'something that is used for doing something': e.g. a frying pan (= a pan that is used for frying)

Nouns formed with noun + gerund

'horse-riding, 'sight-seeing, 'sunbathing

Here, the meaning is 'the action of…': horse-riding (= the action of riding a horse).

Nouns formed with adverb particles

These compound nouns are combinations of verbs and adverb particles: e.g. 'breakdown, 'income, 'make-up.

Nouns formed with noun + noun

When two nouns are used together to form a compound noun, the first noun (noun modifier) usually functions like an adjective and is nearly always in the singular. This is the largest category of compound nouns.

A 'car key, a 'chair leg, a 'kitchen sink,

'London 'Airport, 'Moscow 'Stadium

Baker street, 'Canterbury 'Road

A 'Ford 'car, an 'IBM com'puter, 'Longman 'Books, 'Shell 'Oil

Plurals

The plural of a noun is usually made by adding 's' to the singular:

day, days dog, dogs house, houses

's' is pronounced /s/ after a p, k or f sound. Otherwise, it is pronounced /z/.

When 's' is placed after ce, ge, se or ze an extra syllable /iz/ is added to the spoken word.

Other plural forms

- Nouns ending in o or ch, sh, ss or x form their plural by adding es:

tomato, tomatoes brush, brushes box, boxes

church, churches kiss, kisses

But words of foreign origin or abbreviated words ending in o add s only:

dynamo, dynamos kimono, kimonos piano, pianos

kilo, kilos photo, photos soprano, sopranos

-- Nouns ending in y following a consonant form their plural by dropping the y and adding ies:

baby, babies country, countries fly, flies lady, ladies

Nouns ending in y following a vowel form their plural by adding s:

boy, boys day, days donkey, donkeys guy, guys

- Twelve nouns ending in f or fe drop the f or fe and add ves. These nouns are calf, half, knife, leaf, life, loaf, self, sheaf, shelf, thief, wife, wolf:

loaf, loaves wife, wives wolf, wolves etc.

The nouns hoof, scarf, and warf take either s or ves in the plural:

hoofs or hooves scarfs or scarves wharfs or wharves

- A few nouns form their plurals by a vowel change:

Foot, feet louse, lice mouse, mice woman, women

Goose, geese man, men tooth, teeth

The plurals of child and ox are children and oxen

- Collective nouns, crew, family, team, government, staff firm committee etc., can take a singular or plural verb; singular if we consider the word to mean a single group or unit:

Our team is the best

or plural if we take it to mean a number of individuals:

Our team are wearing their new shirts.

- Certain verbs are always plural and take a plural verb:

Clothes police

Garments consisting of two parts:

Breeches pants pyjamas trousers etc.

and tools and instruments consisting of two parts:

binoculars pliers scissors spectacles

glasses scales shears etc

- A number of words ending in ics, acoustics, athletics, ethics, hysterics, mathematics, physics, politics etc., which are plural in form, normally take a plural verb:

His mathematics are weak.

But names of sciences can sometimes be considered singular:

Mathematics is an exact science.

- Words plural in form but singular in meaning include news:

The news is good.

certain diseases:

measles, rickets, shingles

and certain games:

darts dominoes draughts bowls billiards

- Some words which retain their Greek or Latin forms make their plurals according to the rules of Greek or Latin:

crisis, crises /'kraisis/, /'krais:z/ phenomenon, phenomena

erratum, errata radius, radii

memorandum, memoranda terminus, termini

oasis, oases

Plural of compound nouns

· Normally the last word is made plural:

Boy-friends break-ins travel-agents

But when man and woman are prefixed, both parts are made plural:

Men drivers women drivers

· The first word is made plural with compounds formed of verbs + er nouns + adverbs:

Hangers-on lookers-on runners-up

and with compounds composed of noun + preposition + noun:

sisters-in-law wards of court

Nouns and the possessive case

· 's is used with singular nouns and plural nouns not ending in s:

a man's job the people's choice

men's work the crew's quarters

a woman's intuition the horse's mouth

the butcher's shop the bull's horns

a child's voice women's clothes

the children's room

Russia

's exports

· A simple apostrophe (') is used with plural nouns ending in s:

A girls' school the students' hostel

The eagles' nest the smiths' car

· Names ending in s can take 's or the apostrophe alone:

Mr. Jones's (or Mr. Jones' house) Yeats's (or Yeats' ) poems

· With compounds, the last word takes the 's:

My brother-in-law's guitar

Names consisting of several words are treated similarly:

Henry the Eighth's wives the Prince of Wales's helicopter

Use of the possessive case and of + noun

A. The possessive case is chiefly used for people, countries or animals as shown above. It can also be used :

· Of ships and boats: the ship's bell, the yacht's mast

· Of planes, trains, cars and other vehicles, though here the of construction is safer:

A glider's wings or the wings of a glider

The train's heating system or the heating system of the train

· In time expressions:

A week's holiday today's paper tomorrow's weather

In two years' time ten minutes' break two hours' delay

· With for + noun + sake: for heaven's sake, for goodness' sake.

B. of + noun is used for possession:

· When the possessed noun is followed by a phrase or a clause:

The boys ran about, obeying the direction of a man with a whistle.

I took the advice of a couple I met on the train and I hired a car.

· With inanimate 'possessors', except those listed in A above:

The walls of the town the roof of the church the keys of the car

However, it is often possible to replace noun X + of + noun Y by noun Y + noun X in that order:

The town walls the church roof the car keys

The first noun becomes a sort of adjective and is not made plural:

The roofs of the church = the church roofs .

Unfortunately, noun + of + noun combinations cannot always be replaced in this way and the student is advised to use of when in doubt.

Exercises

Exercise 1: Choose from the words bellow to complete each sentence. Decide if the word should be countable or uncountable. If the word is countable, add a/an or make it plural as appropriate:

Chicken dislike improvement language life success

1- Mary used to keep……….in her garden in her garden until they started to get out.

2- A score of 40% may not be very good but it is certainly………..on her last mark.

3- After so many previous…………., it was inevitable that one of his films would be unpopular.

4- …………is too short to, worry about keeping your house spotlessly clean.

5- I have had ………….of green vegetables ever since I was a child.

6- Our students study both ………….and literature in their English degree.

Exercise 2: Most of these sentences are wrong. Correct them when necessary:

1- The government need to impose taxes.

2- Susan is wearing a black jeans.

3- I need to buy a new pyjama.

4- An increase in taxes caused many crisis.

5- Where are you going to put your furniture?

6- Mathematics deal with calculating equations and matrix.

7- Has the police arrived yet?

8- It was a good suggestion.

9- There is sand in my shoes.

Exercise 3: If necessary, correct these sentences. If they are already correct, put a √.

1- Tony computers have been stolen.

2- When the teacher had called out the girl’s names, they all stepped forward.

3- We had to study Charles Dicken’s early novels at school.

4- I went to the newsagent’s to buy a paper.

5- There were hundreds of bird’s nests in the trees.

6- They are my mother-in-law’s favourite sweets.

7- I took the books to Lewis’ house yesterday.

8- If they had been anyone else’s paintings I wouldn’t have gone to the exhibition.

9- The worlds airline’s are moving towards a total ban on smoking.

10- The readers letters page in the newspaper is full of complaints about the article.

11- I met a cousin of the duke of Edinburgh last week.

Exercise 4: ( Compound nouns) What do you call…….?

1- A Shelf for books. A book shelf

2- A train which carries goods.

3- A test to detect drugs.

4- A case for putting pencils in.

5- A film lasting two hours.

6- The pages of a book that list the contents.

7- An expert in robotics.

8- A shop which sells toys.

9- An assay which is four pages long.

10- An issue of human rights.

Exercise 5: When Luis can’t remember the exact name of something in English he describes it instead. Do you know what he is describing in the following sections? The answers are compound nouns made from the following words: (an example is given)

Bargain friend ground hunters language mother package pedestrian pen precinct sign staff tongue tour

1-‘John works for an airline. He doesn’t fly, but he’s one of the people who work in the airport building.’ Ground staff.

2- ‘He works in town in that area where there are shops, but no cars or buses are allowed to go’.

3- ‘During the sales in the shops, there are a lot of people looking to buy things at low prices’

4- ‘It is someone I often exchange letters with, but I have never met.’

5- ‘We’re going on a holiday arranged by a travel company. It includes accommodation, flights, and so on’.

6- ‘Portuguese is the first language I learned when I was a baby.’

7- ‘My friend can’t talk. He uses hand and body movements to show what he means’.

Lesson Three

Pronouns

A pronoun can replace a noun or another pronoun. You use pronouns like "he," "which," "none," and "you" to make your sentences less cumbersome and less repetitive.

Grammarians classify pronouns into several types, including the personal pronoun, the demonstrative pronoun, the interrogative pronoun, the indefinite pronoun, the relative pronoun, the reflexive pronoun, and the intensive pronoun.

Form of personal/reflexive pronouns and possessives:

	Personal pronouns Subject Object		Possessives Adjectives Pronouns		Reflexive Pronouns
Singular	I You He She It one	Me you Him Her It one	My Your His Her Its (one's)	Mine Yours His Hers - -	Myself Yourself Himself Herself Itself oneself
Plural	We You they	Us You them	Our Your their	Ours Yours theirs	Ourselves Yourselves Themselves

1. Personal Pronouns

A personal pronoun refers to a specific person or thing and changes its form to indicate person, number, gender, and case.

a. Subjective Personal Pronouns

A subjective personal pronoun indicates that the pronoun is acting as the subject of the sentence. The subjective personal pronouns are "I," "you," "she," "he," "it," "we," "you," "they."

In the following sentences, each of the highlighted words is a subjective personal pronoun and acts as the subject of the sentence:

I was glad to find the bus pass in the bottom of the green knapsack.

You are surely the strangest child I have ever met.

He stole the selkie's skin and forced her to live with him.

When she was a young woman, she earned her living as a coal miner.

After many years, they returned to their homeland.

We will meet at the library at 3:30 p.m.

It is on the counter.

Are you the delegates from Malagawatch?

b. Objective Personal Pronouns

An objective personal pronoun indicates that the pronoun is acting as an object of a verb, compound verb, preposition, or infinitive phrase. The objective personal pronouns are: "me," "you," "her," "him," "it," "us," "you," and "them."

In the following sentences, each of the highlighted words is an objective personal pronoun:

Seamus stole the selkie's skin and forced her to live with him.

The objective personal pronoun "her" is the direct object of the verb "forced" and the objective personal pronoun "him" is the object of the preposition "with."

After reading the pamphlet, Judy threw it into the garbage can.

The pronoun "it" is the direct object of the verb "threw".

The agitated assistant stood up and faced the angry delegates and said, "Our leader will address you in five minutes."

In this sentence, the pronoun "you" is the direct object of the verb "address."

Deborah and Roberta will meet us at the newest café in the market.

Here the objective personal pronoun "us" is the direct object of the compound verb "will meet."

Give the list to me.

Here the objective personal pronoun "me" is the object of the preposition "to".

I'm not sure that my contact will talk to you.

Similarly in this example, the objective personal pronoun "you" is the object of the preposition "to".

Christopher was surprised to see her at the drag races.

Here the objective personal pronoun "her" is the object of the infinitive phrase "to see."

2. Possessive Personal Pronouns

A possessive pronoun indicates that the pronoun is acting as a marker of possession and defines who owns a particular object or person. The possessive personal pronouns are "mine," "yours," "hers," "his," "its," "ours," and "theirs." Note that possessive personal pronouns are very similar to possessive adjectives like "my," "her," and "their."

In each of the following sentences, the highlighted word is a possessive personal pronoun:

The smallest gift is mine.

Here the possessive pronoun "mine" functions as a subject complement.

This is yours.

Here too the possessive pronoun "yours" functions as a subject complement.

His is on the kitchen counter.

In this example, the possessive pronoun "his" acts as the subject of the sentence.

Theirs will be delivered tomorrow.

In this sentence, the possessive pronoun "theirs" is the subject of the sentence.

Ours is the green one on the corner.

Here too the possessive pronoun "ours" function as the subject of the sentence.

3. Demonstrative Pronouns

A demonstrative pronoun points to and identifies a noun or a pronoun. "This" and "these" refer to things that are nearby either in space or in time, while "that" and "those" refer to things that are farther away in space or time.

The demonstrative pronouns are "this," "that," "these," and "those." "This" and "that" are used to refer to singular nouns or noun phrases and "these" and "those" are used to refer to plural nouns and noun phrases. Note that the demonstrative pronouns are identical to demonstrative adjectives, though, obviously, you use them differently. It is also important to note that "that" can also be used as a relative pronoun.

In the following sentences, each of the highlighted words is a demonstrative pronoun:

This must not continue.

Here "this" is used as the subject of the compound verb "must not continue."

This is puny; that is the tree I want.

In this example "this" is used as subject and refers to something close to the speaker. The demonstrative pronoun "that" is also a subject but refers to something farther away from the speaker.

Three customers wanted these.

Here "these" is the direct object of the verb "wanted".

4. Interrogative Pronouns

An interrogative pronoun is used to ask questions. The interrogative pronouns are "who," "whom," "which," "what" and the compounds formed with the suffix "ever" ("whoever," "whomever," "whichever," and "whatever"). Note that either "which" or "what" can also be used as an interrogative adjective, and that "who," "whom," or "which" can also be used as a relative pronoun.

You will find "who," "whom," and occasionally "which" used to refer to people, and "which" and "what" used to refer to things and to animals.

"Who" acts as the subject of a verb, while "whom" acts as the object of a verb, preposition, or a verbal.

The highlighted word in each of the following sentences is an interrogative pronoun:

Which wants to see the dentist first?

"Which" is the subject of the sentence.

Who wrote the novel Rockbound?

Similarly "who" is the subject of the sentence.

Whom do you think we should invite?

In this sentence, "whom" is the object of the verb "invite."

To whom do you wish to speak?

Here the interrogative pronoun "whom " is the object of the preposition "to."

Who will meet the delegates at the train station?

In this sentence, the interrogative pronoun "who" is the subject of the compound verb "will meet".

To whom did you give the paper?

In this example the interrogative pronoun "whom" is the object of the preposition "to."

What did she say?

Here the interrogative pronoun "what" is the direct object of the verb "say."

5. Relative Pronouns

You can use a relative pronoun is used to link one phrase or clause to another phrase or clause. The relative pronouns are "who," "whom," "that," and "which." The compounds "whoever," "whomever," and "whichever" are also relative pronouns.

You can use the relative pronouns "who" and "whoever" to refer to the subject of a clause or sentence, and "whom" and "whomever" to refer to the objects of a verb, a verbal or a preposition.

In each of the following sentences, the highlighted word is a relative pronoun.

You may invite whomever you like to the party.

The relative pronoun "whomever" is the direct object of the compound verb "may invite".

The candidate who wins the greatest popular vote is not always elected.

In this sentence, the relative pronoun is the subject of the verb "wins" and introduces the subordinate clause "who wins the greatest popular vote". This subordinate clause acts as an adjective modifying "candidate."

In a time of crisis, the manager asks the workers whom she believes to be the most efficient to arrive an hour earlier than usual.

In this sentence "whom" is the direct object of the verb "believes" and introduces the subordinate clause "whom she believes to be the most efficient". This subordinate clause modifies the noun "workers."

Whoever broke the window will have to replace it.

Here "whoever" functions as the subject of the verb "broke".

The crate which was left in the corridor has now been moved into the storage closet.

In this example "which" acts as the subject of the compound verb "was left" and introduces the subordinate clause "which was left in the corridor." The subordinate clause acts as an adjective modifying the noun "crate."

I will read whichever manuscript arrives first.

Here "whichever" modifies the noun "manuscript" and introduces the subordinate clause "whichever manuscript arrives first." The subordinate clause functions as the direct object of the compound verb "will read."

6. Indefinite Pronouns

An indefinite pronoun is a pronoun referring to an identifiable but not specified person or thing. An indefinite pronoun conveys the idea of all, any, none, or some.

The most common indefinite pronouns are "all," "another," "any," "anybody," "anyone," "anything," "each," "everybody," "everyone," "everything," "few," "many," "nobody," "none," "one," "several," "some," "somebody," and "someone." Note that some indefinite pronouns can also be used as indefinite adjectives.

The highlighted words in the following sentences are indefinite pronouns:

Many were invited to the lunch but only twelve showed up.

Here "many" acts as the subject of the compound verb "were invited".

The office had been searched and everything was thrown onto the floor.

In this example ,"everything" acts as a subject of the compound verb "was thrown."

We donated everything we found in the attic to the woman's shelter garage sale.

In this sentence, "everything" is the direct object of the verb "donated."

Although they looked everywhere for extra copies of the magazine, they found none.

Here too the indefinite pronoun functions as a direct object: "none" is the direct object of "found."

Make sure you give everyone a copy of the amended bylaws.

In this example, "everyone" is the indirect object of the verb "give" -- the direct object is the noun phrase "a copy of the amended bylaws."

Give a registration package to each.

Here "each" is the object of the preposition "to."

7. Reflexive Pronouns

You can use a reflexive pronoun to refer back to the subject of the clause or sentence.

The reflexive pronouns are "myself," "yourself," "herself," "himself," "itself," "ourselves," "yourselves," and "themselves." Note each of these can also act as an intensive pronoun.

Each of the highlighted words in the following sentences is a reflexive pronoun:

Diabetics give themselves insulin shots several times a day.

The Dean often does the photocopying herself so that the secretaries can do more important work.

After the party, I asked myself why I had faxed invitations to everyone in my office building.

Richard usually remembered to send a copy of his e-mail to himself.

Although the landlord promised to paint the apartment, we ended up doing it ourselves.

8. Intensive Pronouns

An intensive pronoun is a pronoun used to emphasise its antecedent. Intensive pronouns are identical in form to reflexive pronouns.

The highlighted words in the following sentences are intensive pronouns:

I myself believe that aliens should abduct my sister.

The Prime Minister himself said that he would lower taxes.

They themselves promised to come to the party even though they had a final exam at the same time.

Exercise1: Insert interrogative pronouns in the appropriate spaces:

1-….…….is that man over there?

2- ………..umbrella is this? Yours or John's?

3- ………...did you meet at the party?

4- …………did you have to drink?

5- …………of your brothers works in this factory?

6- …………do you prefer, swimming or skiing?

Exercise2: Complete the sentences using reflexive pronouns:

1- They could not go into their house; they had locked………. out.

2- It is not her fault. She really should not blame ………….

3- What a stupid fool I am! I could kill ……….

4- He lives by ……….

5- You ……….heard the explosion very clearly.

6- Could you fetch my bags, please? Fetch them…………

Exercise 3: Combine the following sentences using the appropriate relative pronoun:

1- The astronauts are expected to land on the moon very soon. They are reported to be very cheerful.

2- The Thames is now clean enough to swim in. It was polluted for over a 100 years.

3- Sally Smiles has resigned. Her cosmetics company has been in the news recently.

4- That person is the manager. I complained to him.

5- These are the cats. I gave milk to these cats.

6- The agency is bankrupt. We bought our tickets from it.

7- The Tower of London is now a tourist attraction. Many people lost their lives in the Tower of London.

Exercise 4: Complete the following sentences using reciprocal pronouns:

1- How long have Betty and Mary known ……….?

2- They often give ……….presents.

3- Those two are always copying ……….’s homework.

4- Our children always play by stealing …………toys.

5- Karen an Dave are deeply in love with……………

Exersice5: Answer the following questions using reflexive pronouns:

1-Who told Jane was getting married?

2- Who cut your hair for you?

3- Does Mr. Jones have a secretary to type his letters?

4- Do you want me to post that letter for you?

5- Can you clean the windows for him?

Exercise 6: Complete the sentences with an indefinite pronoun:

1- Does ……….mind if I smoke?

2- Would you like …………to drink?

3- Do live …………near John?

4- There is………….at the door. Can you go and see who it is?

5- We slept in the park because we did not have ………….to stay. We didn't know ……..we could stay with and we didn't have…………money for a hotel.

6- Mary is very secretive. She never tells…………, ……………

7- I don't mind what you tell him. Tell him …………..you like.

8- It does not matter what time you phone, you can phone at……………